Black Humor Essay

Is death a laughable matter? Or Christ? Or maybe inhumanity? No. In most situations, people do not laugh at any of those subjects. However, in Kurt Vonnegut’s anti-war novel, Slaughterhouse-Five, he laughs at all of them through the use of black humor. Vonnegut uses black humor as a way to criticize societies in all of his novels, but most notably in Slaughterhouse-Five (Klinkowitz). He uses black humor to criticize peoples’ glorification of war and make humor of death, Christ, and inhumanity. Vonnegut uses an array of situations to ironically make death humorous. Such as when Billy is training to become a solder, his father is shot to death by a friend while deer hunting back home. When Billy is in the hospital recuperating from a plane crash, his wife rushes to the hospital, she has an accident, tears off the exhaust system, arrives at the hospital and dies from carbon monoxide poisoning. Vonnegut uses these examples of situational irony in order to make the reader laugh at such tragedies when really there is nothing to laugh at. After the Dresden fire-bombing Edgar Derby is tried and executed in Dresden, which was firebombed and 135,000 innocent people died in one night, for attempting to steal a teapot. All of these situational ironies and all deaths are narrated by a simple phrase, â€Å"So it goes†. This simple phrase pushes the reader to laugh at the ironic parts of life, even if it is death. And Billy can’t change anything in his life because, â€Å"Among the things Billy Pilgrim could not change were the past, the present and the future† (Vonnegut 60). His happiness or success in his life can only exist in his imagination through his time travels because he knows when and how he will die. The novel ends with the destruction and searching for bodies in Dresden and Billy being released from a prisoner of war status, juxtaposed images of life and death. Because Billy finally is free, he has his life back, whereas all the people in Dresden have their lives taken. The death of thousands and the release of a soldier from POW status are definitely not something humorous, however Vonnegut provides the reader with such contrasting ideas in order to elicit a smile or chuckle. This is complete black humor because black humor is â€Å"combining the morbid and grotesque with humor and farce to give a disturbing effect and convey the absurdity and cruelty of life. † (Black humor) Not only does Vonnegut use black humor to convey death, Vonnegut also criticizes inhumanity through the use of black humor in order to illustrate that death must be accepted but not inhumanity through his use of Roland Weary. Roland Weary is an insane, revenge driven soldier who takes joy in the suffering of others. For example, he feeds a dog a steak with a cut up spring in it in order to get revenge on the dog for biting him. He talks to the dog almost as a child would when he tells the dog â€Å"I’m not mad,† (Vonnegut 139) and states that â€Å"he believed me† (Vonnegut 139). Because Vonnegut portrays Weary as a child by using â€Å"doggy,† which is similar to the diction of a small child, he juxtaposes a childlike character to the inhumanity of the torture that Weary is inflicting on the dog. He compares the innocence of Weary’s diction to Weary’s psychopathic actions. Vonnegut also makes Weary’s inhumanity humorous through his fascination with his triangular blade that â€Å"makes a wound that won’t close up. † (Vonnegut 37) The torture the blade would inflict is made comic by the affection Weary has for it, juxtaposition, between the torture of the blade and the love and obsession Weary has for it, Vonnegut is â€Å"regarding human suffering as absurd rather than pitiable† (Webster’s) in this situation in order to produce such black humor. Vonnegut also laughs at Jesus when most people hold religion to be sacred. Vonnegut describes Christ as â€Å"dead as a doornail† (Vonnegut 203) after he is hung on the cross. This is humorous because Vonnegut compares a huge spiritual icon, Christ, to the bare basics that hold our society together and held Jesus on the cross, nails. The comparison is so ridiculous that it provides a comic purpose and the reader has to laugh at it. The situation also provides a possible source of Billy’s illusion of being unstuck in time, since he is reading about a time traveler in one of Kilgore Trout’s books this may be the point in his life where he gets the idea of being unstuck in time. Vonnegut also goes on to show the lack of interest the Tralfamadorians have in Jesus Christ, the person they are truly interested in is Charles Darwin. Because he taught that â€Å"those who die are meant to die and that corpses are improvements. † (Vonnegut 210) This contrasts the ideas that humans have of death as a negative sad thing and instead teaches that by dying everyone else is better off. This is absurd and humorous because people are devastated by death yet, he is saying that death is great and people benefit from it. Vonnegut uses black humor in many cases in Slaughterhouse-Five to in a way satirize, however he never provides a solution so it is not truly satire. He simply criticizes society and makes the reader think of his or her own solution. Vonnegut wants the reader to realize and act on the idea that the only way we can’t overcome war and deaths in war, is by removing the glorification of killing in war while not providing a solution or way to change the current societal standards.

Communication Gap Among the Generations

Executive Summary: This report is an analysis of the different communication styles among Baby boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y/Millenials. The report discusses the different mindsets, values, and goals among the different generations. The differences above make it hard for organizations to place emphasis on the real issue; the communication gap among the different generations due to different communication styles. The report recommends ways for organizations to integrate the different communication styles to create a more driven, cohesive, and successful organization.The research enforces the fact of the differences in communication styles among different generations causes a communication gap in organizations, making organizations less effective. The research further reveals the gap in communication amongst the different generations makes it difficult to manage Baby boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y/Millenials. The research shows that bridging the communication gap wil l decrease misunderstandings and motivate the different generations to be more interdependent and team oriented.Finally, the research reveals integration of the different communication styles among the generations will create effective and successful organizations. According to the research communication is the most intricate part of any successful business relationship. There is a 20 year gap between each generation. Organizations’ inability to bridge the 20 year gap will be a cost factor, make organizations less efficient, and dismiss interdependency amongst the different generations. It is recommended: Organizations need to ensure the employees’ goals are aligned with the organizational goals * Ongoing training and workshops to ensure all employees are knowledgeable of the organization’s product Closing the Communication Gap Communication is the most intricate element of any type of relationship; whether business or personal. In corporate America the differen t styles of communication among Baby-boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y has caused a communication gap in today's organizations.Integrating the different communication styles across generations will improve the effectiveness of communication in organizations, bridging the communication gap to create a more driven, cohesive, and successful organization. The communication gap among the different generations has made communicating difficult for individuals to work effectively and efficiently. The lack of attention organizations give the communication gap among generations makes organizations less capable of reaching their organizational goals.From my experience when communicating with Baby Boomers I receive pushback, Generation X is more receptive, and Generation Y/Millennial will receive the message, yet look for an incentive. Many organizations are unable to attract motivated or driven employees due to unsuccessful attempts to integrate the different communication styles among t he different generations. For example, the wages, benefits and incentives offered to the different generations differ due to the time each group entered the workplace.The younger generations are not attracted to organizations who are not trying to bridge the gap of communication among the different generations. The younger generations aren’t attracted to businesses that aren’t trying to bridge the gap because they know that there are thousands of other businesses that are up to date with the current technology. Example, Verizon and Apple give their employees devices to help with training. By doing so, employees will have more of a hand on training, versus reading multiple books on the device(s).Baby boomers and Generation X make up the largest part of the workforce, because Baby boomers were born in a rich economic era filled with job opportunities and stable their work ethics and moral are stronger than those of Generation X and Generation Y/Millennial. Baby boomers a re more self absorbed, and individualized. Baby boomers are not fans of teams and have to be trained to work in a team environment. Baby boomers prefer a directive leadership style approach. They want to know exactly what to do, how to do it, and when to do it. Generation X is more innovative, team oriented, and self sufficient.This generation will research an issue and make a decision based upon their knowledge and good judgment; they are entrepreneurs. Generation Y/Millennial brings back to the workforce a strong sense of self worth. They welcome feedback because it helps advance their career to the next level. Generation Y/Millennial communicates openly and is always looking for ways to improve the work process. Baby boomers live to work, Generation X work to live, and Generation Y/Millennial work to satisfy personal goals; the different work characteristics and birth eras makes organizational communication difficult.Baby boomers do not trust authority therefore they avoid commun ication with superiors; Generation X has an informal approach to superiors they are not afraid to voice their opinions or refutes, and Generation Y/ Millennial communicate openly. The different styles of communication among the three generations cause different perspectives, thoughts and problem solving methods to arise when organizations are trying to complete a task. Organizations bridging the communication gap among the generations will enhance the values and knowledge of their employees.By doing so, this motivates them to align their personal goals with the goals of the organization, which contributes success of the organization. The different views on communication causes the generation to take focus off of the goals the organization is trying to achieve and put more focus on how the company is communicating the goal. Once organizations find a way to integrate the communication styles of the different generations the organization will be able to motivate their employees to be m ore driven towards achieving the goals of the organization.If employees feel they are not receiving the information they need to fulfill the role of their position. Organizations have to find a way to get Baby boomers onboard with electronic communications. Most Baby boomers shy away from text message, email, social media and other electronic communications. Generation X and Generation Y/Millennial prefer the electronic communication; concise and saves time. Organizations do not consider the communication gap when considering the elements that are causing the organization to fail.Organizations do not realize ineffective communication among the different generations affects the quality of the teams and causing confusion among the members. Baby boomers are workaholics, while Generation X and Generation Y/Millennial do what is required and go home. Baby boomers will stay until the project is complete; Generation X and Generation Y will leave the work for the next day. Organizations hav e to learn how to deal with the differences among the generations to improve the drive of the members.To get everyone to focus more on bringing the different generations together, organizations have to stop categorizing people into groups based on their birth era. Organizations need to understand employees who are more driven will produce more high quality work. To put the drive in employees organizations have to know what motivates all their employees and how it affects them personally. Organizations have to close the communication gap among the difference generations to effectively deliver feedback and receive feedback from employees.To create team cohesiveness, organizations must bridge the communication gap so the different generations will be interdependent on one another. The generation gap eliminates team cohesiveness because some team members are unable to effectively express themselves or are to self absorbed to ask for understanding of a problem. The different styles of co mmunication among the generations can cause individuals to be stubborn towards change, while others welcome change and see change as an opportunity for growth.Bridging the communication gap will prevent manipulation of the organizational system for self gain and put more focus on developing the team. An organization must have great communication skills to be successful. Organizations must be willing to put forth the extra effort to successfully communicate among the different generations. Organizations have been unsuccessful in many ventures due to lack of loyalty, lack of productivity, and lack of respect caused by the gap in communication. The gap in communication has caused organizations to downsize and lose customers.Organizations have to give individuals the cause and effect of successfully integrating the different communication styles. The organization has to let the employees know how the integration of communication styles can be a benefit for them. Due to the birth era dif ferent generations are comfortable communicating face to face versus using an electronic source. Organizations have to respect the difference in the styles of communicating and create a work environment where people aren’t afraid to voice their opinions to make the organization successful.Organizations inability to accommodate different communication styles and promote open communication has caused them to be unsuccessful Organizations have experienced cost issues due to the communication. The cost associated with resolving the communication gap is minimal. Changing the way things are viewed is a key component to organizations being successful. Promoting organizational communication among the different generations will assist organizations with successfully integrating the different communication styles. The organization has to be more aware and put them in a position to apply the strengths of each generation.Once organizations understand the different styles of communication the gap will begin to close. Organizations have to do their research to understand the communication styles of the different generations. Organizations will need to establish a relationship among the generations to integrate the different communication styles, increase employee drive and be more successful. In order to save highly efficient employees, organizations will need to take more time to construct plans to integrate the different communication styles. Today Corporate American employs various generations across different departments.The mixture of Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y has caused conflicts with communication due to misunderstanding. Implementing a plan or strategy that will capture the key values and personality of each generation is a way to avoid challenges due to the communication gap among the different generations. The different communication styles of the generations is more difficult to understand or respect the difference among the generations. In 2011, Hahn stated understanding generational differences can be a source of creative strength and an opportunity or a source of stifling stress and conflict (p. 20). Communication is the most intricate element of any type of relationship whether business or personal. In corporate America the different styles of communication among Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y causes a communication gap in today’s organizations. Integrating the different communication styles across generations will improve the effectiveness of communication in organizations, bridging the communication gap to create a more drive, cohesive, and successful organization. Management would really need to step it up when it comes to managing multiple generations.The different generations will be able to gain a better understanding of the values, work characteristics, and customs of each other’s generation if organizations are able to bridge the communication gap. Bridging the communication gap will decrease misinterpretation of information at meetings and will create a more driven organization. According to the article â€Å"Managing Multiple Generations,† familiarization with the characteristics and core values of each generation will help organizations to better understand the differences in the communication style of the generations and lead to improved team work (Hahn, 2011, p. 20). Once corporations gain an understanding of the differences in communication style among the generations and begin to implement work processes bridging the communication gap they will be able to attract and retain quality employees. According to the article, â€Å"Managing Multiple Generations,† the outcome of bridging the communication gap among the different generations will decrease workplace stress and tension creates a stronger more driven organization (Hahn, 2011, p. 120). Remember that your research has to be tied to your specific problem.Baby boomers make up most o f corporate America, are very loyal and are very serious about their careers or job duties. According to the article, â€Å"Managing Multiple Generations,† this population grew up in a time of economic prosperity (Hahn, 2011, p. 120). Baby boomers are now being managed by people who are the ages of their children. For example, I have a friend and her manager is 15 years younger than she is. When her manager instructs her to do a task she hesitates due to the age gap and the difference in communication style.She reacts this way because she feels the younger generation does not take the time to weigh the pros and cons of a situation, they go with what is good for right now, which isn’t good for the organization. By being a Baby Boomer, she’s resistant to change and feel as if a thirty year old is experienced enough to be a manager. She enjoys working independently and defines herself through her work title. Today many corporations gravitate to team environments; B aby boomers are unfavorable to team environments. Baby boomers have strong work ethics and measure work with self worth and fulfillment.Baby boomers are the group that arrives early to work and views overtime as a moral obligations (Hahn, 2011, p. 120 Organizations identifying the different communication style among the generations help them use the correct tools and sources to effectively communicate with their employees. Once an organization implements an effective communication style accepted by Baby boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y/Millennial have overcome the obstacle that has caused many organizations to lack cohesiveness and the communication gap due to ifferent generations in the workplace. Organizations are more successful when they effectively integrate the different communication styles across generations. Without great communication skills an organization will fail. According to Gibson, Greenwood, and Murphy (2010) organizations have effectively integrated the dif ferent communication styles among the different generations when they are able to identify the unique characteristics and values of each generation (p. 40).Once the unique characteristics and values are indentified, the organization creates processes that manage and reconcile the differences in the communication styles among Baby boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y/Millennial (Gibson, Greenwood ; Murphy, 2010, p. 42). I have noticed in my workplace how management has implemented different ways to bridge the communication gap among Baby boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y/Millennial. For example, they will send out an email advising they are having refresher courses on the different electronic communication applications.Sending out a mass email to everyone in the organizations does not stereotype a particular group; it allows anyone the opportunity to attend a training class to become more familiar with the different media applications. According to Gibson, Greenwood, and Mur phy (2010) by doing the refresher trainings organizations are able to reconcile the different styles of communications among the different generations, and understand the strengths of each generation (p. 42).The refresher courses also prevent generational exclusivity (Gibson, Greenwood ; Murphy, 2010, p. 43). Once the company effectively integrates the different communication styles among the different generations, they’ll be able to send the right message to the right channel to each generation; therefore, creating a more successful organization. Effective communication is the key in any successful relationship; an organization, just like a marriage, will fail if there’s a gap in communication.According to Gibson, Greenwood ; Murphy (2010) understanding and accommodating value differences, organizations can effectively close the communication gap among the different generations and eliminate the barriers to attaining a successful organization (p. 43. ) The ultimate qu estion is, what would we need to do in order to bridge the gap? According to all the data and research, an organization would need to make sure the employee’s goals and way of thinking is in line with the company’s organizational goals.The company should also conduct workshops to help the employees bring efficiency to the organization. Motivation and incentives also play a big part in generation gaps. An example would be, some generations would be motivated by higher salaries and/or bonuses, while other generations would be motivated by recognitions/awards. Another factor would be, technology. As I stated earlier in the paper, Verizon and Apple gives more of a hands on training, rather than administering paper manuals/test. Technology is the key in this age, and technology will make or break a company’s success.The younger generation IM (instant message), send text, and/or emails as their source of communication (indirect). On the other hand, the older generatio ns would choose more of a direct source of communication. With the job markets changing, the demands for all generations are needed. The key would be to balance the generations to utilize all the advantages. References: Bailey, A. , ; Ngwenyama, O. (2010). Bridging the Generation Gap in ICT Use: Interrogating Identity, Technology and Interactions in Community Telecenters. Information Technology For Development, 16(1), 62-82. oi:10. 1080/02681100903566156 Hahn, J. A. (2011). Managing Multiple Generations: Scenarios From the Workplace. Nursing Forum, 46(3), 119- 127. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1744-6198. 2011. 00223. x Murphy Jr. , E. F. , Gibson, J. , ; Greenwood, R. A. (2010). Analyzing Generational Values Among Managers and Non-Managers for Sustainable Organizational Effectiveness. SAM Advanced Management Journal (07497075), 75(1), 33-55. Ochs, L. , ; Adams, R. (2009). Generational stereotyping and group communication. Radiation Therapist, 18(2), 155-158.

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A Capstone Experience (Crafting a Strategy to fit the Business 2) - Assignment Example In creating a competitive advantage, a firm should develop ways of outshining the competing rival in the market. A weak strategy is one that could be different from the others, but can be accessed easily by other competitors (Kourdi 2003). It is difficult for the success of the company to come from one with a strong business model and a corresponding weak strategy. The companys strategy is meant to create a competitive advantage for the firm in the market place. It should act in the interest of the company to implement the requirements of the business model. A weak strategy would not meet the demands of the firm in the market, as it would be similar with the competitors, thus doing little good for the benefit of the firm (McGrath 2013). In conclusion, even with a strong business model, a weak strategy could lead to the fall of the firm. With a different product in the market, a firm could have a competitive advantage and outshine the other competitors. However, the success would not be possible with a weak strategy. The business model is the machinery part that strives to achieve the objectives of the business strategy. Thus, the weak strategy would undermine the working of the business model. A strong business model would work hand in hand with a strong

Vivienne Westwood Designer Report Essay Example for Free

Vivienne Westwood Designer Report Essay Vivienne Westwood, born on April 8 1941 is a British fashion Designer and businesswoman, largely responsible for bringing modern punk and new wave fashions into the mainstream. (Price) Westwood was born Vivienne Isabel Swire in the village of Tintwistle Derbyshire, daughter of Gordon Swire and Dora Swire. At age 17, Vivienne and her family moved to Harrow, London. She studied at the Harrow School of Art University of Westminster, taking fashion and silversmithing but she left after one term saying, â€Å"I didn’t know how a working class girl like me could possibly make a living in the art world. After taking a job in a factory and studying at a teacher training college, she became a primary school teacher. During this period, she also created her own jewelry which she would sell at a stall on Portobello Road in London (Susannah) In 1961 at age 20, Vivienne Swire met Derek Westwood, a Hoover factory apprentice in Harrow. They married in July 1962 and Vivienne made her own wedding dress for the ceremony. Vivienne and Derek’s marriage lasted three years with Vivienne continuing to teach while making jewelry. At around this time she met Malcolm McLaren (Susannah) When she met Malcolm McLaren, it signified the end of Westwoods marriage to Derek. Westwood and McLaren moved to a council flat in Clapham. Westwood continued to teach until 1971 when Malcolm decided to open a boutique at 430 Kings Road called Let It Rock (later known variously as Sex, Too Fast to Live Too Young to Die, and Seditionaries† and now Worlds Ends, where Westwood sells her Vivienne Westwood label clothing. Westwood created clothes which McLaren conceived, drawing inspiration from bikers, fetishists and prostitutes. During this period, McLaren became manager of the punk band Sex Pistols and subsequently the two garnered attention as the band wore Westwood and McLarens designs. Westwood was deeply interested in the punk fashion phenomenon of the 1970s, saying I was messianic about punk, seeing if one could put a spoke in the system in some way. (Alejandra) The punk style included BDSM fashion, bondage gear, safety pins, razor blades, bicycle or lavatory chains on clothing and spiked dog collars for jewelry, as well as outrageous make-up and hair. Essential design elements include the adoption of traditional elements of Scottish esign such as tartan fabric. In the 1980s, John Fairchild named the young Westwood one of the six most influential designers of our times in his fashion bible, the Womens Wear Daily. Her first catwalk show was presented in 1981, featuring the collaboration of Westwood and McLaren. The theme that year was Pirates. Since then, she has won British Designer of the Year three times. (The Design Museum) She dubbed the period 1981 to 1985, new romantic and 1988 -1991 The Pagan Years during which Vivienne’s heroes changed from punks and ragamuffins to ‘Tatler’ girls wearing clothes that parodied the upper class. The period from 1993 to 1999 she called Anglomania and from 2000 to the present – Exploration. Vivienne Westwood revolutionized fashion, and her impact can still be felt. Her clothes are full of historical references, particularly to the 17th and 18th century, which serve as an inexhaustible source of inspiration for her. In addition, with her own technique for draping and pattern cutting, Westwood creates clothes with a characteristic volume, continually amazing her public. As for her latest collection, the pieces continue to reveal her glam, rock and rebel spirit. More now than ever, the designer was also chosen by Disneyland Paris and Unicef (along with 24 other designers) to relook the fairy tale princesses. The most fortunate among us who dream of a haute couture princess gown will be able to procure Snow Whites dress by Vivienne Westwood. Vivienne Westwoods influence in her taste for the eccentric and the provocative can be found today at John Galliano, Alexander McQueen, Stella McCartney and even Viktor Rolf. These stylists attended the school of she who once declared, My secret? Always keep them guessing

Frequency modulation the amplitude

Frequency modulation the amplitude INTRODUCTION In frequency modulation the amplitude is kept constant and the frequency is modulated by the amplitude of the modulating signal. The modulation index for fm is m = maximum frequency deviation/modulating frequency. FM signal can be represented as:- v = ac sin(wct + m sin wmt ) ABSTRACT Frequency modulation is a type of modulation where the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the modulating signal. The amplitude of the carrier remains constant. The information-bearing signal (the modulating signal) changes the instantaneous frequency of the carrier. Since the amplitude is kept constant, FM modulation is a low-noise process and provides a high quality modulation technique which is used for music and speech in hi-fidelity broadcasts. In addition to hi-fidelity radio transmission, FM techniques are used for other important consumer applications such as audio synthesis and recording the luminance portion of a video signal with less distortion. There are several devices that are capable of generating FM signals, such as a VCO or a reactance modulator. Frequency Modulation is abbreviated FM. Definitions An important concept in the understanding of FM is that of frequency deviation. The amount of frequency deviation a signal experiences is a measure of the change in transmitter output frequency from the rest frequency of the transmitter. The rest frequency of a transmitter is defined as the output frequency with no modulating signal applied. For a transmitter with linear modulation characteristics, the frequency deviation of the carrier is directly proportional to the amplitude of the applied modulating signal. Mathematical Analysis of FM As was done with AM, a mathematical analysis of a high-frequency sine wave, modulated by a single tone or frequency, will be used to yield information about the frequency components in an FM wave, FM power relations, and the bandwidth of an FM signal. From the definition of frequency deviation, an equation can be written for the signal frequency of an FM wave as a function of time: fsignal = fC + kf eM(t) = fC + kf EM sin?Mt And substitution of d = kf EM yields: fsignal = fC + d sin?Mt But what does this equation indicate? It seems to be saying that the frequency of the transmitter is varying with time. This brings up the same type of problem that was observed when we looked at a time display of AM and then performed a mathematical analysis in an attempt to determine its frequency content. With AM, the signal appeared to be a sine wave thats amplitude was changing with time. At the time, it was pointed out that a sine wave, by definition, has a constant peak amplitude, and thus cannot have a peak amplitude that varies with time. What about the sine waves frequency? It also must be a constant and cannot be varying with time. As was the case with AM, where it turned out that our modulated wave was actually the vector sum of three sine waves, a similar situation is true for FM. An FM wave will consist of three or more frequency components vectorially added together to give the appearance of a sine wave thats frequency is varying with time when displayed in the time domain. A somewhat complex mathematical analysis will yield an equation for the instantaneous voltage of an FM wave of the form shown here: eFM(t) = EC sin(?Ct + mf sin?Mt) where EC is the rest-frequency peak amplitude, ?C and ?M represent the rest and modulating frequencies, and mf is the index of modulation. This equation represents a single low-frequency sine wave, fM, frequency modulating another high-frequency sine wave, fC. Note that this equation indicates that the argument of the sine wave is itself a sine wave. The Index of Modulation The index of modulation, mf, is given by the following relationship: A few more comments about the index of modulation, mf, are appropriate. As can be seen from the equation, mf is equal to the peak deviation caused when the signal is modulated by the frequency of the modulating signal; therefore, mf is a function of both the modulating signal amplitude and frequency. Furthermore, mf can take on any value from 0 to infinity. Its range is not limited as it is for AM. FM Power Relations Recall that for an FM wave the amplitude of the signal, and hence the power, remains constant. This means that the power in the individual frequency components of the wave must add up to the transmitter output power. Furthermore, if the modulation index changes, the total power must redistribute itself over the resulting frequency components. If there is no modulation, then mf = 0 and J0 = 1.0. Mathematically, this can be shown by the following: Prest freq = J0 power 2 Ptrans or Prest freq = Ptrans for mf = 0.0. To determine the power for any individual frequency component, we can use the following relation: Pn = Jn 2(mf) Ptrans 4.11 Furthermore, the total signal power will be given by: Ptotal = (J0power2 + 2J1power2 + 2J2power2 + 2J3power2 + ) Ptrans. The Effect of Noise on FM Recall AM and the effect of noise on it. Random electrical variations added to the AM signal altered the original modulation of the signal. For FM, noise still adds to the signal, but because the information resides in frequency changes instead of amplitude changes, the noise tends to have less of an effect. Expanding upon this idea a bit, one notes that the random electrical variations encountered by the FM signal will indeed cause distortion by jittering the frequency of the FM signal. However, the change in frequency modulation caused by the jittering usually turns out to be less than the change in the amplitude modulation caused by the same relative amplitude noise variations on an AM signal. Also unlike AM, the effect of the frequency jittering becomes progressively worse as the modulating frequency increases. In other words, the effect of noise increases with modulation frequency. Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis To compensate for this last effect, FM communication systems have incorporated a noise-combating system of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis FM Generation Techniques FM signals can be generated using either direct or indirect frequency modulation. Direct FM modulation can be achieved by directly feeding the message into the input of a VCO. For indirect FM modulation, the message signal is integrated to generate a phase modulated signal. This is used to modulate a crystal controlled oscillator, and the result is passed through a frequency multiplier to give an FM signal DIRECT FM GENERATION The simplest method for generating FM directly is to vary the frequency of an oscillator. A capacitance microphone or a varactor diode may be used as part of the oscillators frequency determining network. The capacitor microphones capacitance varies in response to the intensity of the sound waves striking it, making the oscillators frequency vary as the amplitude of the sound varies. The varactor diodes capacitance depends on the voltage across it. Audio signals placed across the diode cause its capacitance to change, which in turn, causes the frequency of the oscillator to vary. INDIRECT FM GENERATION While it is not possible to vary the frequency of a crystal oscillator directly, it is possible to vary its phase. The resulting PM signal can be used to create FM. This is the basis of the Armstrong modulator.The mathematics required to analyze the Armstrong modulator completely are complex, so we will discuss only the basic circuit operation. An audio signal is passed through a preemphasis network and then an integrator, a special network whose output is the time integral of the input signal.. In this way an FM signal is generated.The Armstrong modulator cannot produce much deviation, so combination of multipliers and mixers are used to raise the carrier frequency and the deviation. The multipliers are used to multiply the carrier and the deviation. The mixers are used to decrease the carrier, while keeping the deviation constant so that additional multiplier stages can be used to obtain more deviation. FM Performance FM Spectrum A spectrum represents the relative amounts of different frequency components in any signal. Its like the display on the graphic-equalizer in your stereo which has leds showing the relative amounts of bass, midrange and treble. These correspond directly to increasing frequencies (treble being the high frequency components). It is a well-know fact of mathematics, that any function (signal) can be decomposed into purely sinusoidal components (with a few pathological exceptions) . In technical terms, the sines and cosines form a complete set of functions, also known as a basis in the infinite-dimensional vector space of real-valued functions (gag reflex). Given that any signal can be thought to be made up of sinusoidal signals, the spectrum then represents the recipe card of how to make the signal from sinusoids. Like: 1 part of 50 Hz and 2 parts of 200 Hz. Pure sinusoids have the simplest spectrum of all, just one component: In this example, the carrier has 8 Hz and so the spectrum has a single component with value 1.0 at 8 Hz . The FM spectrum is considerably more complicated. The spectrum of a simple FM signal looks like: The carrier is now 65 Hz, the modulating signal is a pure 5 Hz tone, and the modulation index is 2. What we see are multiple side-bands (spikes at other than the carrier frequency) separated by the modulating frequency, 5 Hz. There are roughly 3 side-bands on either side of the carrier. The shape of the spectrum may be explained using a simple heterodyne argument: when you mix the three frequencies (fc, fm and Df) together you get the sum and difference frequencies. The largest combination is fc + fm + Df, and the smallest is fc fm Df. Since Df = b fm, the frequency varies (b + 1) fm above and below the carrier. A more realistic example is to use an audio spectrum to provide the modulation: In this example, the information signal varies between 1 and 11 Hz. The carrier is at 65 Hz and the modulation index is 2. The individual side-band spikes are replaced by a more-or-less continuous spectrum. However, the extent of the side-bands is limited (approximately) to (b + 1) fm above and below. Here, that would be 33 Hz above and below, making the bandwidth about 66 Hz. We see the side-bands extend from 35 to 90 Hz, so out observed bandwidth is 65 Hz. You may have wondered why we ignored the smooth humps at the extreme ends of the spectrum. The truth is that they are in fact a by-product of frequency modulation (there is no random noise in this example). However, they may be safely ignored because they are have only a minute fraction of the total power. In practice, the random noise would obscure them anyway. Frequency Response Frequency response is a specification used in amplifiers, pre-amplifiers, CD players, tape decks and other audio components to measure how uniformly it reproduces sounds from the lowest tones to the highest. An amplifier or other component should preserve the loudness relationship between various instruments and voices and should not over or under-emphasize any frequency or tone. This is known as flat frequency response. Bandwidth As we have already shown, the bandwidth of a FM signal may be predicted using: BW = 2 (b + 1 ) fm where b is the modulation index and fm is the maximum modulating frequency used. FM radio has a significantly larger bandwidth than AM radio, but the FM radio band is also larger. The combination keeps the number of available channels about the same. The bandwidth of an FM signal has a more complicated dependency than in the AM case (recall, the bandwidth of AM signals depend only on the maximum modulation frequency). In FM, both the modulation index and the modulating frequency affect the bandwidth. As the information is made stronger, the bandwidth also grows. Applications of frequency modulation: Broadcasting: FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech . Normal (analog) TV sound is also broadcast using FM. A narrow band form is used for voice communications in commercial and amateur radio settings. The type of FM used in broadcast is generally called wide-FM, or W-FM. In two-way radio, narrowband narrow-fm (N-FM) is used to conserve bandwidth. In addition, it is used to send signals into space. Sound: FM is also used at audio frequencies to synthesize sound. This technique, known as FM synthesis, was popularized by early digital synthesizers and became a standard feature for several generations of personal computer sound cards. Radio: An example of frequency modulation. This diagram shows the modulating, or message, signal, xm(t), superimposed on the carrier wave, xc(t) The modulated signal, y(t), produced from frequency-modulating xc(t) with xm(t). A Method of Reducing Disturbances in Radio Signaling by a System of Frequency Modulation called radio FM. As , wideband FM (W-FM) requires a wider signal bandwidth than amplitude modulation by an equivalent modulating signal, but this also makes the signal more robust against noise and interference. Frequency modulation is also more robust against simple signal amplitude fading phenomena. As a result, FM was chosen as the modulation standard for high frequency, high fidelity radio transmission: hence the term FM radio (although for many years the BBC called it VHF radio, because commercial FM broadcasting uses a well-known part of the VHF band; in certain countries, expressions referencing the more familiar wavelength notion are still used in place of the more abstract modulation technique name).A high-efficiency radio-frequency switching amplifier can be used to transmit FM signals (and other constant-amplitude signals). For a given signal strength (measured at the receiver antenna), switching amplifiers use less battery power and typically cost less than a linear amplifier. This gives FM another advantage over other modulation schemes that require linear amplifiers, such as AM and QAM. REFRENCES; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation http://www.tech-faq.com/frequency-modulation.shtml http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/navy/docs/es310/FM.htm http://www.answers.com/topic/frequency-modulation